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Embryonic stem (ES) cells are permanent pluripotent stem cell lines established from pre-implantation mouse embryos. There is currently great interest in the potential therapeutic applications of analogous cells derived from human embryos. The isolation of ES cells is commonly presented as a straightforward transfer of cells in the early embryo into culture. In reality, however, continuous expansion of pluripotent cells does not occur in vivo, and in vitro is the exception rather than the norm. Both genetic and epigenetic factors influence the ability to derive ES cells. We have tracked the expression of a key marker and determinant of pluripotency, the transcription factor Oct-4, in primary cultures of mouse epiblasts and used this to assay the effect of experimental manipulations on the maintenance of a pluripotent cell compartment. We find that expression of Oct-4 is often lost prior to overt cytodifferentiation of the epiblast. The rate and extent of Oct-4 extinction varies with genetic background. We report that treatment with the MAP kinase/ERK kinase inhibitor PD98059, which suppresses activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases Erk1 and Erk2, results in increased persistence of Oct-4-expressing cells. Oct-4 expression is also relatively sustained in cultures of diapause embryos and of isolated inner cell masses. Combination of all three conditions allowed the derivation of germline-competent ES cells from the normally refractory CBA mouse strain. These findings suggest that the genesis of an ES cell is a relatively complex process requiring epigenetic modulation of key gene expression over a brief time-window. Procedures that extend this time-window and/or directly regulate the critical genes should increase the efficiency of ES cell derivation.

Germ line mutations in the Adenomatous polyposis coli tumor suppressor gene cause a hereditary form of intestinal tumorigenesis in both mice and man. Here we show that in Apc(Min/+) mice, which carry a heterozygous germ line mutation at codon 850 of Apc, there is progressive loss of immature and mature thymocytes from approximately 80 days of age with complete regression of the thymus by 120 days. In addition, Apc(Min/+) mice show parallel depletion of splenic natural killer (NK) cells, immature B cells, and B progenitor cells in bone marrow due to complete loss of interleukin 7 (IL-7)-dependent B-cell progenitors. Using bone marrow transplantation experiments into wild-type recipients, we have shown that the capacity of transplanted Apc(Min/+) bone marrow cells for T- and B-cell development appears normal. In contrast, although the Apc(Min/+) bone marrow microenvironment supported short-term reconstitution with wild-type bone marrow, Apc(Min/+) animals that received transplants subsequently underwent lymphodepletion. Fibroblast colony-forming unit (CFU-F) colony assays revealed a significant reduction in colony-forming mesenchymal progenitor cells in the bone marrow of Apc(Min/+) mice compared with wild-type animals prior to the onset of lymphodepletion. This suggests that an altered bone marrow microenvironment may account for the selective lymphocyte depletion observed in this model of familial adenomatous polyposis. View Publication

Vertebrate body axis extension involves progressive generation and subsequent differentiation of new cells derived from a caudal stem zone; however, molecular mechanisms that preserve caudal progenitors and coordinate differentiation are poorly understood. FGF maintains caudal progenitors and its attenuation is required for neuronal and mesodermal differentiation and to position segment boundaries. Furthermore, somitic mesoderm promotes neuronal differentiation in part by downregulating Fgf8. Here we identify retinoic acid (RA) as this somitic signal and show that retinoid and FGF pathways have opposing actions. FGF is a general repressor of differentiation, including ventral neural patterning, while RA attenuates Fgf8 in neuroepithelium and paraxial mesoderm, where it controls somite boundary position. RA is further required for neuronal differentiation and expression of key ventral neural patterning genes. Our data demonstrate that FGF and RA pathways are mutually inhibitory and suggest that their opposing actions provide a global mechanism that controls differentiation during axis extension.

In mammals, the continuous production of hematopoietic cells (HCs) is sustained by a small number of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) residing in the bone marrow. Early HSC activity arises in the aorta-gonad mesonephros region, within cells localized to the ventral floor of the major blood vessels, suggesting that the first HSCs may be derived from cells capable of giving rise to the hematopoietic system and to the endothelial cells of the vasculature. TIE1 (TIE) and TIE2 (TEK) are related receptor tyrosine kinases with an embryonic expression pattern in endothelial cells, their precursors, and HCs, suggestive of a role in the divergence and function of both lineages. Indeed, gene targeting approaches have shown that TIE1, TIE2, and ligands for TIE2, the angiopoietins, are essential for vascular development and maintenance. To explore possible roles for these receptors in HCs, we have examined the ability of embryonic cells lacking both TIE1 and TIE2 to contribute to developmental and adult hematopoiesis by generating chimeric animals between normal embryonic cells and cells lacking these receptors. We show here that TIE receptors are not required for differentiation and proliferation of definitive hematopoietic lineages in the embryo and fetus; surprisingly, however, these receptors are specifically required during postnatal bone marrow hematopoiesis. View Publication

Sir2 and Hst1 are NAD+-dependent deacetylases involved in transcriptional repression in yeast. The two enzymes are highly homologous yet have different sensitivity to the small-molecule inhibitor splitomicin (compound 1) (Bedalov, A., Gatbonton, T., Irvine, W. P., Gottschling, D. E., and Simon, J. A. (2001) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 98, 15113-15118). We have now defined a critical amino acid residue within a small helical module of Hst1 that confers relative resistance to splitomicin. Parallel cell-based screens of 100 splitomicin analogues led to the identification of compounds that exhibit a higher degree of selectivity toward Sir2 or Hst1. A series of compounds based on a splitomicin derivative, dehydrosplitomicin (compound 2), effectively phenocopied a yeast strain that lacked Hst1 deacetylase while having no effect on the silencing activities of Sir2. In addition, we identified a compound with improved selectivity for Sir2. Selectivity was affirmed using whole-genome DNA microarray analysis. This study underscores the power of phenotypic screens in the development and characterization of selective inhibitors of enzyme functions.

SU9516 is a 3-substituted indolinone compound with demonstrated potent and selective inhibition toward cyclin dependent kinases (cdks). Here, we describe the kinetic characterization of this inhibition with respect to cdk2, 1, and 4, along with the crystal structure in complex with cdk2. The molecule is competitive with respect to ATP for cdk2/cyclin A, with a K(i) value of 0.031 microM. Similarly, SU9516 inhibits cdk2/cyclin E and cdk1/cyclin B1 in an ATP-competitive manner, although at a 2- to 8-fold reduced potency. In contrast, the compound exhibited non-competitive inhibition with respect to ATP toward cdk4/cyclin D1, with a 45-fold reduced potency. The X-ray crystal structure of SU9516 bound to cdk2 revealed interactions between the molecule and Leu83 and Glu81 of the kinase. This study should aid in the development of more potent and selective cdk inhibitors for potential therapeutic agents.

IL-3, IL-5, and GM-CSF are related hematopoietic cytoines that are important for allergic inflammation. The receptors for human IL-5, IL-3, and GM-CSF are members of the hematopoietin receptor superfamily and are comprised of a cytokine-specific alpha chain and the common beta chain that is shared among these cytokines for signaling. Each of these cytokines contributes to the differentiation and function of leukocyte subpopulations and have clinical importance in protective immunity and in the pathophysiology of a spectrum of immunologic diseases that are as diverse as allergy and asthma, pulmonary alveolar proteinosis, neurodegenerative diseases, and malignancies. Delineating the biology of these cytokines is enabling the development of new strategies for diagnosing and treating these diseases and modulating immune responses.

In a patient with refractory anemia with excess blasts (RAEB), a somatic mutation of mitochondrial transfer RNA(Leu(UUR)) was detected in bone marrow cells. Heteroduplex analysis indicated that 40% to 50% of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) molecules in the bone marrow (BM) carried the novel G3242A mutation. The proportion of mutant mtDNA was higher in CD34(+) cells than in the unfractionated sample. Surprisingly, the mutation was not detectable by heteroduplex analysis in the peripheral blood (PB). However, PB CD34(+) cells selected by immunomagnetic beads harbored the mutation with a proportion of approximately 50%. In hematopoietic colony assays, CD34(+) cells from BM and PB yielded only colonies with wild-type mtDNA. These results indicate that the mtDNA mutation in CD34(+) cells was associated with a maturation defect. Mitochondrial tRNA mutations impair mitochondrial protein synthesis, thereby causing dysfunction of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. We propose that this effect contributed to ineffective hematopoiesis in our patient.

The physiologic function of BUBR1, a key component of the spindle checkpoint, was examined by generating BUBR1-mutant mice. BUBR1(-/-) embryos failed to survive beyond day 8.5 in utero as a result of extensive apoptosis. Whereas BUBR1(+/-) blastocysts grew relatively normally in vitro, BUBR1(-/-) blastocysts exhibited impaired proliferation and atrophied. Adult BUBR1(+/-) mice manifested splenomegaly and abnormal megakaryopoiesis. BUBR1 haploinsufficiency resulted in an increase in the number of splenic megakaryocytes, which was correlated with an increase in megakaryocytic, but a decrease in erythroid, progenitors in bone marrow cells. RNA interference-mediated down-regulation of BUBR1 also caused an increase in polyploidy formation in murine embryonic fibroblast cells and enhanced megakaryopoiesis in bone marrow progenitor cells. However, enhanced megakaryopoiesis in BUBR1(+/-) mice was not correlated with a significant increase in platelets in peripheral blood, which was at least partly due to a defect in the formation of proplatelet-producing megakaryocytes. Together, these results indicate that BUBR1 is essential for early embryonic development and normal hematopoiesis.

We previously found that some myeloma cell lines express the heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor (HB-EGF) gene. As the proteoglycan syndecan-1 is an HB-EGF coreceptor as well as a hallmark of plasma cell differentiation and a marker of myeloma cells, we studied the role of HB-EGF on myeloma cell growth. The HB-EGF gene was expressed by bone marrow mononuclear cells in 8 of 8 patients with myeloma, particularly by monocytes and stromal cells, but not by purified primary myeloma cells. Six of 9 myeloma cell lines and 9 of 9 purified primary myeloma cells expressed ErbB1 or ErbB4 genes coding for HB-EGF receptor. In the presence of a low interleukin-6 (IL-6) concentration, HB-EGF stimulated the proliferation of the 6 ErbB1+ or ErbB4+ cell lines, through the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT (PI-3K/AKT) pathway. A pan-ErbB inhibitor blocked the myeloma cell growth factor activity and the signaling induced by HB-EGF. This inhibitor induced apoptosis of patients'myeloma cells cultured with their tumor environment. It also increased patients' myeloma cell apoptosis induced by an anti-IL-6 antibody or dexamethasone. The ErbB inhibitor had no effect on the interaction between multiple myeloma cells and stromal cells. It was not toxic for nonmyeloma cells present in patients' bone marrow cultures or for the growth of hematopoietic progenitors. Altogether, these data identify ErbB receptors as putative therapeutic targets in multiple myeloma. View Publication

We studied the actions of geldanamycin (GA) and herbimycin A (HMA), inhibitors of the chaperone proteins Hsp90 and GRP94, on B chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells in vitro. Both drugs induced apoptosis of the majority of CLL isolates studied. Whereas exposure to 4-hour pulses of 30 to 100 nM GA killed normal B lymphocytes and CLL cells with similar dose responses, T lymphocytes from healthy donors as well as those present in the CLL isolates were relatively resistant. GA, but not HMA, showed a modest cytoprotective effect toward CD34+ hematopoietic progenitors from normal bone marrow. The ability of bone marrow progenitors to form hematopoietic colonies was unaffected by pulse exposures to GA. Both GA and HMA synergized with chlorambucil and fludarabine in killing a subset of CLL isolates. GA- and HMA-induced apoptosis was preceded by the up-regulation of the stress-responsive chaperones Hsp70 and BiP. Both ansamycins also resulted in down-regulation of Akt protein kinase, a modulator of cell survival. The relative resistance of T lymphocytes and of CD34+ bone marrow progenitors to GA coupled with its ability to induce apoptosis following brief exposures and to synergize with cytotoxic drugs warrant further investigation of ansamycins as potential therapeutic agents in CLL.