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Different innate immune cell types are known to release extracellular traps (ETs) in response to invasive pathogens, including parasites. These ETs function to trap, immobilize, and eventually kill pathogens. In line with this, monocytes and macrophages have been shown to release ETs, known as monocyte/macrophage extracellular traps (METs). Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is an apicomplexan zoonotic parasite that infects humans and homeothermic animals. While most studies have focused on prolonged exposure of immune cells to T. gondii, this study characterized the early innate immune reaction of mononuclear phagocytes to vital T. gondii tachyzoites. Methods: Primary human and bovine monocytes, monocytic THP-1 cells, and THP-1 cell-derived macrophages (M0-, M1-, and M2-like) were exposed to T. gondii tachyzoites for 4 h. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), immunofluorescencemicroscopy, and confocal microscopy were used to visualize cell activation and the presence of METs. Additionally, the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6, and expression of Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 and TLR4 were analyzed. Results and discussion: Microscopic analysis illustrated the activation of all cell types tested within 4 h of exposure to T. gondii tachyzoites. Numerous tachyzoites were found intracellularly in THP-1 cell-derived M1-like macrophages. Furthermore, the co-localization of extracellular DNA (extDNA) and histones in extracellular web-like fibers proved classical characteristics of extruded T. gondii-induced METs, although this was a rare event. In primary human monocytes, an increased release of IL-1β and IL-6 was observed following exposure to T. gondii tachyzoites. When co-stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), primary human monocytes showed an enhanced release of IL-1β and IL-6 in response to T. gondii. In contrast to monocytic THP-1 cells, THP-1 cell-derived M1-like macrophages released IL-1β in response to T. gondii tachyzoite exposure. When additionally stimulated by LPS, all THP-1 cell-derived macrophages showed an enhanced release of IL-1β, and monocytic THP-1 cells an increased release of IL-6 in response to T. gondii tachyzoites. This study provides insights into the early innate immune response of human and bovine mononuclear phagocytes to T. gondii. While cytokine secretion was prominent, MET formation was rare in the early response (i.e. < 4 h of exposure) to T. gondii tachyzoites.

Pancreatic β cells derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) represent a promising therapeutic avenue in regenerative medicine for diabetes treatment. However, current differentiation protocols lack the specificity and efficiency required to reliably produce fully functional β cells, limiting their clinical applicability. Epigenetic barriers, such as histone modifications, may hinder proper differentiation and the acquisition of essential maturation markers in these cells. Methods: hiPSCs were cultured under feeder-free conditions and subjected to lentiviral transduction with shRNA constructs to silence KDM4A. Differentiation into pancreatic β-like cells was performed using stepwise protocols, with or without doxycycline supplementation, to evaluate the effect of KDM4A suppression. Gene expression was quantified by RT-qPCR, protein expression was assessed by western blotting and immunofluorescence, and functional insulin release was determined by glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) assays. Statistical analysis was conducted using unpaired two-tailed Student’s t-tests, with significance set at p < 0.05. Results: A reduction in pancreatic development proteins was observed in the different differentiation states evaluated, after blocking KDM4A expression. Knockdown of KDM4A significantly reduced the expression of pancreatic β-cell genes, such as PDX1, Nkx6.1, and Ins, by 50% compared to WT iPSCs differentiated under the same conditions. Similarly, glucose-stimulated insulin secretion was reduced by approximately 80% in KDM4A-deficient β-like cells. Conclusions: These results emphasize the critical role of histone demethylation in hiPSC differentiation toward β cells. Our findings identify KDM4A as a key epigenetic regulator, suggesting that its modulation could enhance the generation of functional β cells for regenerative medicine in diabetes.

The utility of measuring real-time cellular bioenergetics of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) as biomarkers in disease monitoring, such as the bioenergetic health index, is of emerging interest. However, various experimental factors can impact the accuracy and reproducibility of these measurements. Methods: : PBMC bioenergetics were probed in real-time using extracellular flux analysis to identify optimal seeding density and injection protocol. Using a modified protocol, we assessed the extent to which blood processing time and isolation method (SepMate™ vs. EasySep™ Direct) influence PBMC bioenergetics under basal and stimulated conditions. Advanced metabolic control analysis including mitochondrial and glycolytic ATP supply flux, respiratory control ratio, bioenergetic health index, and mitochondrial toxicity index were used to identify and quantify PBMC bioenergetics. Results: Measures of metabolic profiling such as mitochondrial respiration, glycolytic activity, ATP supply flux, and respiratory control ratio were significantly diminished in PBMCs due to blood processing delay (48–72 hours) and were influenced by isolation method. Extended blood processing time significantly lowered T cell activation capacity in PBMCs, evidenced by decreased responses of mitochondrial and glycolytic ATP supply to CD3/CD28 activation. Discussion/Conclusion: This study demonstrates that key experimental variables including blood processing time and isolation method critically affect the reliability and biological relevance of PBMC metabolic assessments, highlighting the importance of protocol standardisation for accurate bioenergetic biomarker measurements.

Embryonic stem cell (ESC)-derived cardiomyocytes are a key resource for studying cardiac development and advancing regenerative therapies. Beclin1 (Becn1), a core regulator of autophagy and cardiac morphogenesis, has an undefined role in cardiomyocyte lineage specification. This study aims to investigate the regulatory function of Becn1 during cardiac differentiation from both mouse and human ESCs. Methods: Mouse and human ESCs were differentiated into cardiomyocytes through established embryoid body (EB) formation or monolayer differentiation protocols. Stable Becn1 knockdown was achieved using short hairpin RNA (shRNA). Cardiomyocyte differentiation efficiency was evaluated by flow cytometry, immunocytochemistry, and contraction assays. Differentiation cardiomyocyte function was evaluated by sarcomere arrangement, calcium transients, and microelectrode array (MEA). Transcriptomic profiling was conducted by bulk RNA sequencing, and pathway dynamics were analyzed using qPCR and western blotting. Results: Becn1 expression declined over the course of differentiation. Knockdown of Becn1 significantly enhanced cardiomyocyte yield and promoted earlier onset of contractile activity, accompanied by increased expression of cardiac-specific markers. Mechanistically, Becn1 deficiency elicited a biphasic Wnt signaling response, characterized by early activation during mesodermal induction followed by suppression at later stages of differentiation. This shift was accompanied by sustained BMP pathway activation. Notably, Becn1-deficient ESCs underwent efficient cardiac differentiation in the absence of exogenous VEGF or FGF, with BMP signaling compensating for their omission. These findings were recapitulated in human ESCs, where BECN1 knockdown supported Wnt modulators-independent cardiomyocyte differentiation through coordinated modulation of Wnt and BMP pathways. Conclusions: Becn1 serves as a negative regulator of cardiac lineage commitment by orchestrating stage-specific Wnt/BMP signaling dynamics. Silencing Becn1 enhances cardiomyocyte differentiation and enables growth factor-independent lineage progression. These findings offer a novel approach to improve the efficiency and scalability of stem cell-derived cardiomyocyte production for regenerative applications.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a lethal malignancy characterized by desmoplastic stroma, immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), and resistance to standard therapies. Natural killer (NK) cell-based immunotherapies have shown limited efficacy due to impaired persistence, infiltration, and function in PDAC. Methods: We established a direct reprogramming strategy to generate cytotoxic NK cells (1 F-NKs) by targeting BCL11B, a transcription factor essential for T cell lineage commitment, using shRNA or CRISPR/Cas9 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). A genome-wide CRISPR/Cas9 screen identified tumor-intrinsic modulators of NK resistance. Functional and in vivo studies assesses the efficacy of 1 F-NKs alone and in combination with mesothelin (MSLN)-CAR engineering and PKMYT1 inhibition. Results: BCL11B depletion enabled the generation of CD56brightCD16bright 1 F-NKs with potent cytotoxicity and elevated NKG2D and CX3CR1 expression. Site-specific integration of a mesothelin (MSLN)-CAR into BCL11B locus generated MSLN-1 F-NKs with stable antigen specific activity. A genome-wide screen identified PKMYT1 as a modulator of tumor resistance to NK cell-mediated killing; its inhibition by RP6306 upregulated NKG2D ligands (MICA/B) and CX3CL1, sensitizing PDACs to 1 F-NK cytotoxicity. In PDAC xenograft models, 1 F-NKs alone or combined with CAR engineering and RP6306 significantly reduced tumor growth and prolonged survival. Notably, this triple combination elicited a synergistic antitumor effect, outperforming each monotherapy or dual combination. Conclusions: This study presents a synergistic immunotherapy platform that integrates NK reprogramming, CAR engineering, and tumor sensitization. The combinatorial approach significantly enhances antitumor efficacy in PDAC and offers a promising strategy for overcoming immune resistance in solid tumors.

Cancer stem cells were prominent responsible for cancer initiation, metastasis, and invasion as well as therapeutic resistance in colorectal cancer (CRC). The extracellular axon guidance factor netrin-1 has been found to be overexpressed in several malignant cancers such as glioma, lung cancers, and colorectal cancer. However, the role of netrin-1 on cancer stemness in CRC remains unveiled. Our study revealed high expression of netrin-1 in colorectal cancer tissues and its ability to promote cancer stemness by interacting with receptors UNC5B and neogenin on murine colorectal cancer cell. Mechanistically, the netrin-1-UNC5B/neogenin axis activates the downstream NF-κB and ERK1/2 signaling pathways, reinforcing the stemness properties of tumor cells, and further exacerbating tumor progression. Clinically, netrin-1 expression associated with poor survival and high CD133 expression in patients with CRC. Taken together, these results suggest that netrin-1 blockade could be a compelling therapeutic strategy to improve the poor outcomes and trigger cancer stemness inhibition in CRC treatment.

Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) affects up to two-thirds of cancer patients undergoing cytotoxic chemotherapy. Here, we used human iPSC-derived sensory neurons (iPSC-DSN) to model CIPN in vitro. Administration of various chemotherapeutic agents (i.e., paclitaxel, vincristine, bortezomib and cisplatin) at clinically applicable concentrations resulted in reduced cell viability, axonal degeneration, electrophysiological dysfunction and increased levels of phosphorylated c-Jun in iPSC-DSN. Transcriptomic analyses revealed that the upregulation of c-Jun strongly correlated with the expression of genes of neuronal injury, apoptosis and inflammatory signatures. To test whether c-Jun plays a central role in the development of CIPN, we applied the small molecule inhibitor of the Jun N-terminal kinase, SP600125, to iPSC-DSN treated with neurotoxic chemotherapy. c-Jun inhibition prevented chemotherapy-induced neurotoxicity by preserving cell viability, axonal integrity and electrophysiological function of iPSC-DSN. These findings identify c-Jun as a key mediator of CIPN pathophysiology across multiple drug types and present preclinical evidence that c-Jun inhibition is an attractive therapeutic target to prevent CIPN.

Neuronal differentiation requires extensive metabolic remodeling to support increased energetic and biosynthetic demands. Here, we present an integrated multi-omics and functional characterization of metabolic transitions during early differentiation of human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) into excitatory cortical neurons using doxycycline-inducible overexpression of neurogenin-2 (NGN2). We analyzed parental iPSCs and induced neurons (iNs) at days 7 and 14 of differentiation, integrating gene expression profiling, label-free quantitative proteomics, high-resolution respirometry, fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM), and 13C₆-glucose metabolic flux analysis. Our data reveal progressive metabolic remodeling associated with neuronal maturation, including enhanced oxidative phosphorylation, increased mitochondrial content, and respiratory capacity. Proteomic analyses showed upregulation of mitochondrial and antioxidant pathways, while FLIM indicated a progressive increase in enzyme-bound NAD(P)H, consistent with a shift toward oxidative metabolism. Notably, 13C₆-glucose tracing revealed delayed labeling of the intracellular pool of fully labeled glucose and tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolites, together with enhanced labeling of pentose phosphate pathway intermediates and glutathione in iNs, indicating a shift toward biosynthetic and antioxidant glucose utilization during differentiation. Despite this enhancement in mitochondrial function, differentiated neurons maintained glycolytic activity, suggesting metabolic flexibility. Our results define the first week of differentiation as a critical window of metabolic specialization and establish NGN2-iPSC-derived cortical neurons as a versatile and well-characterized model system for investigating bioenergetic remodeling during early human neurodevelopment. It provides a robust foundation for mechanistic insights and high-throughput evaluation of metabolic pathways relevant to human disease.

Three-dimensional (3D) human brain tissue models derived from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) have transformed the study of neural development and disease in vitro. While cerebral organoids offer high structural complexity, their large size often leads to necrotic core formation, limiting reproducibility and challenging the integration of microglia. Here, we present a detailed, reproducible protocol for generating multi-cell type 3D neurospheres that incorporate neurons, astrocytes, and optionally microglia, all derived from the same iPSCs. While neurons and astrocytes differentiate spontaneously from neural precursor cells, generated by dual SMAD-inhibition (blocking BMP and TGF-b signaling), microglia are generated in parallel and can infiltrate the mature neurosphere tissue after plating neurospheres into 48-well plates. The system supports a range of downstream applications, including functional confocal live imaging of GCaMP6f after adeno-associated virus (AAV) transduction of neurospheres or immunofluorescence staining after fixation. Our approach has been successfully implemented across multiple laboratories, demonstrating its robustness and translational potential for studying neuron–glia interactions and modeling neurodegenerative processes.

The differentiation of pluripotent stem cells into neurons is an essential area of biomedical research, with significant implications for understanding neural development and treating neurological diseases. This study compares neural cultures derived from a common induced pluripotent stem cell line (KYOU-DXR0109B) generated by two widely adopted methods: DUAL SMAD inhibition and exogenous NGN2 overexpression. The DUAL SMAD inhibition method, which differentiates through the neural stem cell stage, produces heterogeneous cultures containing a mix of neurons, neural precursors, and glial cells. Conversely, NGN2 overexpression generates more homogeneous cultures composed predominantly of mature neurons. Transcriptomic analysis revealed significant differences in neural gene markers expression profiles, with cultures from the DUAL SMAD inhibition method enriched in neural stem cell and glial markers, while NGN2 overexpression cultures showed elevated markers for cholinergic and peripheral sensory neurons. This study underscores the importance of choosing appropriate differentiation protocols based on the desired cell types, as each method yields neural cultures with distinct cellular compositions. Understanding these differences can help optimize protocols for specific research and therapeutic applications.

Proteomics of dystrophic muscle samples is limited by the amount of protein that can be extracted from patient biopsies. Cells and tissues derived from patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) can be an expandable alternative source. We have patterned iPSCs from three Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) patient lines into skeletal muscle cells using a two-dimensional as well as our three-dimensional organoid differentiation system. Probes with sufficient protein amounts could be extracted and prepared for mass spectrometry. In total, 3007 proteins in 2D and 2709 proteins in 3D were detected in DMD patient probes. A total of 83 proteins in 2D and 338 proteins in 3D can be described as differentially expressed between DMD and control patient probes in a post hoc test. We have identified and we propose Myosin-9, Collagen 18A, Tropomyosin 1, BASP1, RUVBL1, and NCAM1 as proteins specifically altered in their expression in DMD for further investigation. Proteomics of skeletal muscle organoids resulted in greater consistency of results between cell lines in comparison to the two-dimensional myogenic differentiation protocol.

Human microglia are central regulators and actors in brain infections and neuro-inflammatory pathologies. However, access to such cells is limited, and studies systematically mapping the spectrum of their inflammatory states are scarce. Here, we generated microglia-like cells (MGLCs) from human induced pluripotent stem cells and characterized them as a robust, accessible model system for studying inflammatory activation. We validated lineage identity through transcriptome profiling, revealing selective upregulation of microglial signature genes and enrichment of microglia/macrophage-related gene sets. MGLCs displayed distinct morphologies and produced stimulus- and time-dependent cytokine secretion profiles upon exposure to diverse inflammatory stimuli, including pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNFα, interferon-γ) and agonists of the Toll-like receptors TLR2 (FSL-1), TLR3 (Poly(I:C)), TLR4 (lipopolysaccharide, LPS), and TLR7 (imiquimod). Transcriptome profiling and bioinformatics analysis revealed distinct activation signatures. Functional assays demonstrated stimulus-specific engagement of NFκB and JAK-STAT signaling pathways. The shared NFκB nuclear translocation response of TLR ligands and TNFα was reflected in overlapping transcriptome profiles: they shared modules (e.g., oxidative stress response and TNFα-related signaling) identified by weighted gene co-expression network analysis. Finally, the potential consequences of microglia activation for neighboring cells were studied on the example of microglia-astrocyte crosstalk. The capacity of MGLC supernatants to stimulate astrocytes was measured by quantifying astrocytic NFκB translocation. MGLCs stimulated with FSL-1, LPS, or Poly(I:C) indirectly activated astrocytes via a strictly TNFα-dependent mechanism, highlighting the role of soluble mediators in the signal propagation. Altogether, this platform enables a dissection of microglia activation states and multi-parametric characterization of subsequent neuroinflammation.